Euthanasia: Kantianism vs Utilitarianism Essay

The deliberate act of ending another’s life, given his or her consent, is formally referred to as euthanasia. At present, euthanasia is one of the most controversial social-ethical issues that we face, in that it deals with a sensitive subject matter where there is much uncertainty as to what position one ought to take. Deliberately killing another person is presumed by most rational people as a fundamental evil act. However, when that person gives his or her consent to do so, this seems to give rise to an exceptional case. This can be illustrated in the most common case of euthanasia, where the person who is willing to die suffers from an illness that causes great pain, and will result in his or her demise in the not-so-distant future. In this case, killing the person would seem to be the most humane and reasonable thing to do, whereas keeping the person alive would be akin to torture; which is also presumed to be a fundamental evil act. But euthanasia, in essence, is murder, and this might lead one to ask whether there can ever be an exception to murder? And if one were to make an exception in this case, what would then prevent us from making exceptions in other cases? In the worst case scenario, would this not leave an opening for cold-blooded murders to kill people without their consent, and make false claims that they did have their consent? There are a variety of positions, based on the numerous ethical theories that have been developed, that one can take in order to resolve the issue of euthanasia; but the positions I will be looking at in particular, are the positions based on John Stuart Mill’s ‘Utilitarianism’ ethical theory, and Immanuel Kant’s ‘Categorical Imperative’ ethical theory. According to Utilitarianism, euthanasia can be morally justified, whereas according to Kantianism, euthanasia is not morally justifiable; but I will argue that neither position provides an adequate resolution to the issue, due to the significant flaws that are inherent in the reasoning that led to their particular positions. According to Utilitarianism, ethics is primarily an empirical science; essentially implying that the moral standard must be based on human experiences, and not abstract principles that are largely impractical. Hence, based on an understanding of human experience Utilitarianism proposes that the ultimate end of every human action is simply pleasure, and the absence of pain. This fundamental idea then forms the basis for Utilitarianism’s Greatest Happiness Principle which states, â€Å"actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness. By happiness is intended pleasure, and the absence of pain; by unhappiness, pain, and the privation of pleasure† (Mill, 7). Also, Utilitarianism asserts that actions are judged as moral solely based on their consequences, and not on their motives. So, if a person acts out of good intentions, but does not produce beneficial results, then his action does not qualify as a moral action. Finally, Utilitarianism asserts that an action is good only if it promotes the greatest happiness for the greatest amount of people. Therefore, an action that slightly increases your own pleasure, but in turn, dramatically decreases the pleasure of other, according to Utilitarianism is not moral action. Thus, in the context of the case mentioned in the introduction, the Utilitarian position on euthanasia would go something as follows: With respect to the individual who is willing to die, he/she would simply be happiest dead, and unhappiest alive. With respect to the people who care for the individual, they would be happy that he/she is alive, but unhappy at the same time because he/she is in great pain; or if the individual underwent euthanasia, happy because he/she is no longer in pain, but unhappy because he/she is dead. So, in applying the Utilitarian principle to this case, the greatest happiness for the greatest amount of people occurs when the person is dead. The reason being that the people who care for the person are both happy and unhappy regardless of whether the person is dead or alive, but the person will only be happy if he/she is dead. Therefore, since euthanasia meets the moral standards set by Utilitarianism, it would support the act of euthanasia as a morally sound action. Unlike Utilitarianism however, Kantianism states that ethics is a purely a priori discipline, thus, independent of experience, and that ethical rules can only be found through pure reason. Also contrary to Utilitarianism, Kantianism asserts that the moral worth of an action should be judged on its motive and the action itself, and not on its consequences. Based on these ideas, Kantianism propose that an action is good only if it performed out a ‘good will’; which is the only thing that is good, in and of itself. To act out of a ‘good will’, one must act in accordance with a categorical imperative. According to Kant there is only one categorical imperative, which is to â€Å"act only on that maxim in which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law† (Kant, 528); and can also be formulated as â€Å"act in such a way that you always treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, never simply as means, but always at the same time as an end† (Kant, 532). Essentially, the categorical imperative states that your actions must not result in a practical contradiction, which can be determined by conceptualizing all other people performing the same act. To illustrate, if I were to make a promise with no intentions of keeping it, and I imagine all other people doing the same, then very idea of a promise would cease to have meaning, and thus, my action would give rise to a practical contradiction, and consequently, be immoral. Finally, the categorical imperative is an unconditional ought, which means that an action must be performed solely out of duty to the categorical imperative, without any ulterior motive, in order for it to be a moral action. Thus, with regard to euthanasia, Kantians would reject the act of euthanasia as a morally good action based on their reasoning that an action is good only if it acts in accordance with a categorical imperative. Taking the categorical imperative in terms of being able to act in ways that can, without contradiction, become a universal law, if one were to universalize killing another person – which is the fundamental act in euthanasia – this would result in a practical contradiction. That practical contradiction being if everyone were to kill one another, then there would be no people left in this world, and as a consequence, the very idea of murder would lose its meaning. Also, if one were to formulate the categorical imperative in terms of treating others (including oneself) as ends rather than means, euthanasia would violate the categorical imperative, in that the person is treated as a means by killing himself, to reach the end goal of eliminating the pain. Therefore, since euthanasia does not meet the moral standards set out by Kantianism, it would not support the act of euthanasia as a morally sound action. However, as I stated in my thesis, I believe that Utilitarianism, and Kantianism do not provide an adequate resolution to the issue of euthanasia, because of the significant flaws in their reasoning. With Utilitarianism, the significant flaw in their position lies in the fact that it is built on the false assumption that the consequences of actions can be predicted, when in actuality they cannot. For example, it is possible that the person, who underwent euthanasia because of the pain he/she suffered, could’ve been misdiagnosed and fully recovered shortly after. Also, inspired by his/her new life, the individual went on to form a charity that raised money for research in pain treatment, thereby increasing the happiness for a great many. Thus, under the utilitarian system, keeping the person alive in this scenario would have been the morally justified act, whereas killing the person would not have been. With Kantianism, the significant flaw in their position lies in the fact that they make an absolute, immutable statement – do not murder – without any consideration for the context in which murder takes place. It is unreasonable, and bordering on foolish, to claim to adequately resolve special cases of murder such as euthanasia through a simple, general statement without taking into consideration its context. Though it is indeed reasonable that deliberately killing another for the sake of harming them is an immoral act, in euthanasia, a person is killed by another only by their own consent, and for the most part, with a good motive. When a person is suffering tremendously and is most likely going to die anyways, it does not at all seem unreasonable to kill him. In fact, killing the person would seem to be the most humane act one can perform, and in not killing the person, and keeping him/her alive in such a state of pain and agony, would be like an indirect form of torture; which in Kantianism is not a moral act. Thus, for these reasons, the positions of Utilitarianism and Kantianism on euthanasia are inadequate in resolving the issue of euthanasia, and euthanasia still remains as a significant social-ethical problem in our contemporary society. Works Cited Mill, J. S. (1984). Excerpts from Utilitarianism, On Liberty and Considerations on Representative Government, 1, 4-42. London: Dent. Kant, I. (1956). Excerpts from Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals, trans. H. J. Paton, 61-62, 64-67, 74, 80-92, 95-107. London: Unwin Hyman. Reprinted in E. Sober, Core Question in Philosophy: A Text with Readings, 520-540. Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall, 2001.

Explanation of Sensation, Perception, and Attention Essay

The recommendations for the authority sensations, perceptive, and attention to learning would be like if a person would sit down to study, the person would not be bother by the distracting environmental stimuli. Why? Because some people and certain other people cannot lie in the difference of ability to focus and control each other attention toward their own perceptive processes derived from sensations. A report says that (Kowalski & Westen, 2009) acknowledges that the human sensory systems, visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, touch, proprioceptive, vestibular, and kinesthetic all specialized cells that respond to environmental stimuli called sensory. A short term for olfactory is small. The term for gustatory is taste. An example for touch is pain. Proprioceptive is sensory information about body’s position and movement. Vestibular is sensory information on position of body in space by sensing gravity and movement. Kinesthetic is a sensory information about movement and position of limbs and other parts of the body relative to one another. All the words are transformed is called sensory receptors. It’s used to transform the energy from environmental stimuli into a neural impulse that can be understood by the brain, a process referred to as transduction (Kowalski & Westen, 2009). Auditory Sensory System’s Threshold As I read the report it explained that the sensory system’s is so quick that one is unaware of its environmental stimuli are encoding for intensity and quality by the authority sensory system in the brain. So the sensory system is evident by the amplitude (loudness) and frequency (pitch) of a sound wave’s cyde. It is explained that the expansion and contraction of air that flows through the ear canal where â€Å"transduction occurs by way of hair cells is attached to the basilar membrane that responds to vibrations in the fluid- filled cochlea.† Auditory  Sensory System is a process that can triggers the action potentials in the auditory nerve. It is then transmitted to the brain (Kowalski & Westen, 2009, p.152). The difference between the two types of people can be found among individuals sensitivity to the least amount of stimulation needed for one person to notice the stimulus, or one’s absolute threshold (Kowalski & Westen, 2009). Perception Perception is the active process by which the brain organizes and interprets sensations such as color, light, hot, and so forth. It is said that perceiving is much more that merely opening ones eyes and ears to see and hear what is there. Perception takes a continuous array of sensations in through the senses and organizes it into meaningful units. Perception is then interprets the organized information (Kowalski & Westen, 2009). The mind has several organizational patterns available when forming into sensations into perceptions. A good example could be a form perception organizes sensations into shapes and patterns that have meaning to the observer. Why considering the pattern, it helps one to understand why keeping the study and learning environment of team members as free of auditory and visual distraction as possible is necessary for excellence in performance of team assignments. The nature vs. nurture debate continues to be debated in nearly every domain of psychology. Psychologists continue to look at the question of how much our current perceptions rely on base on our experiences. A German philosopher name Immanuel Kant, believed that humans innately experience the world using the categories of time, space, and causality. Kant, felt like people automatically equate why something has happen to their prior learning and that the mind creates perception. The report said, perception involves both bottom-up processing, which begins with sensory data that feed â€Å"up† to the brain, and top-down processing. It begins with the observer’s expectations and knowledge. According to the text, context plays a big role in perceptual interpretation by stating how readily one understands the meaning of what is perceived depends on his or her experience with the matter of understanding it. A team member’s immediate context affects their perceptual interpretation but also the member’s enduring beliefs and expectations will affect perception of information organization of data, and assignment  performance. Perception and memory produces thought that forms mental representation and when one remember, he or she tries to bring that representation to mind. Thinking was images and words that then are classified into what the representations are and do thereby placing people and objects into categories that are used to try to solve a problem or answer a question (Kowalski & Westen, 2009). Attention When one is trying to focus attention on students on studies or a job at hand it is important to use sensor processing efficiently. Attention requires turning down the volume on redundant information because the nervous system tunes out continuous information (Kowalski & Westen, 2009). An example is when students sit down into a study, its best to keep background noise to a minimum volume. Another example is the radio or television is playing while trying to study creates continuous noise that will hinder the mind’s ability to focus unless the sound are below the person’s threshold. Its like when you arranging for a quiet and uninterrupted place to study will provide the best environment for clear thinking and attention. Conclusion The individuals differences of students in learning teams, knowing, and understanding others environments and backgrounds helps students work together more effectively. The report also explains that the differences in sensations and perceptions affect how each team member learns, behaves, and works. If you know the mental struggles, one of the team members enabled to team members to understand when the team members chooses to leave class. To understand the behavior of individuals, it comes from knowledge and appreciation of the particular sensory and perceptual experiences of others. To understand psychological disturbances, its helpful to understand the limitations and complexities of the sensory systems and the role perception plays in either distorting or correcting those systems. So teams continues to work together, understanding the stimulus threshold of each member as well as how dividing attention facilities of impedes to the learning process will guide members to know how best to divide responsibilities to achieve maximum results. Aground rule could be to make sure one is in a quiet environment with telephone, television, and  radio distractions eliminated will help each team members attention is undivided when working on team assignments. Noise and distractions are kept below individuals threshold levels; the environment becomes conductive to learning and completing assignments. Information is process in a clear manner and attention is focused and direct. Without distractions, our sensory perceptions can access short and long-term memory for information needed. References Kowalski R and Westen D.(2009). Psychology ( 5th ed) Hoboken, NJ: Wiley www.mindofreality.wordpress.com

Suffolk County Council Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Suffolk County Council - Case Study Example The situation at SCC looks like a case of ‘Top Down’ decision, initiated by the CEO Andrea Hill. She along with some senior executives has taken the hard decision to cut back on the number of staff at SCC. A Top-Down approach in an organization is one where one person (or more) at the top of the organizational hierarchy takes a decision and the juniors are expected to follow it. (Princeton, 2014) In comparison, a Bottom-Up approach in an organization refers to the involvement of people at the grass root level to form a consensus regarding a decision. (Princeton, 2014). On preliminary reading, it looks like the executives at SCC have made a mistake regarding the decision to cut back on staff by using a high handed approach in the matter and perhaps not fully investigated other alternatives which may be available to them. For example, if they had consulted with their staff, and presented the problem to them, and asked the staff to take a pay cut for a short period of time, maybe the issue of cutting back would not have arisen. SCC had over the years gone on a hiring spree, perhaps expecting a sharp increase in the demand for their services. However, this doesn’t seem to have happe ned, and now SCC is facing the dual problem of low demands and high personal cost. A revolutionary change is being tried by the new CEO Andrea Hill, in an effort to make SCC â€Å"leaner, smaller, cheaper, more creative, and more innovative.† The relieving of staff will almost certainly ensure that SCC operates in a cheaper more cost-effective way, but there is no guarantee that it will be more creative or innovative. Moreover, it is my personal opinion that creativity flourishes from stability.  

Engagement Strategy Presentation and Outline Research Paper

Engagement Strategy Presentation and Outline - Research Paper Example Employees are highly affected by the changes that take place within an organization including all kinds of mergers, acquisitions or takeover, management changes etc. the negative effects of these make the employees less engaged as well as de motivated and as a result, the employees become less dedicated and less satisfied and this is reflected in their work and performance. Therefore, it is extremely important for organizations to keep their staff motivated because a de motivated staff will affect the employees` performance as well as the performance of the entire organization. In order to increase staff morale and make them for satisfied, the human resource department should adopt strategies to boost staff morale and as a result, improve their performance. Employee engagement is usually low when a firm merges with another firm and there is some kind of a change in the management positions or styles. Similarly, the merge of the consulting firm with a software development agency results in low morale, low performance as well as high unrest. Employees should be given clear instructions and should be informed about the company`s mission for the future. As senior human resource leaders, it is our responsibility to introduce measures through which staff morale and performance could be restored. It is also extremely important to introduce equal policies and practices for both the new as well as old employees to deter future conflicts. Therefore, we propose the following engagement plans and strategies to help build the morale of old as well as new employees. The incentive theory of motivation includes that incentives should be given to the employees including both monetary and non-monetary rewards. These compensation strategies are in compliance with the expectancy theory which states that for a specific task given to the employees, they will exercise a certain amount of effort with the perceived level of compensation they will receive. If employees expect a greater

Key Areas Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Key Areas - Essay Example Town hall meetings are an effective strategy because they offer opportunities for the nurses to discuss a policy issue with a policy maker in the presence of community members (Stewart et al., 2009). These structured discussions offer the nurses and the policy maker to listen to the community and identify some of the concerns and ways of dealing with the issue. In addition, the nurses can inquire for follow up questions to clarify some of the responses (Mason et al., 2011). Additionally, when people are going for a town hall meeting, they are aware of the issue at hand and try to get more information to ask the host (Mason et al., 2011). In this regards, it acts as a way of helping people get more information within the society to learn about its effects, prevalence and ways on how to control it. However, town halls are not an effective strategy because the people may become â€Å"numb† to town halls especially if there have been numerous others that have not addressed their concerns (Stewart et al., 2009). Therefore, in order to make town halls effective, it would be imperative to address the concerns aired and adopt some of the solutions offered. Stewart, P. A., Salter, F. K., & Mehu, M. (2009). Taking leaders at face value: Ethology and the analysis of televised leader displays. Politics and the Life Sciences: The Journal of the Association for Politics and the Life Sciences, 28(1),

Final Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Final - Term Paper Example However, majority people assume that a single male who is the main source of income, earn more than enough to support himself and his family. There was not at all a mutual agreement on in what ways a living wage can be define, however, there were number of administrative bodies and governments who take initiative in taking up the mission of developing multifaceted formulas (David, pp. 6-11) In modern times, this phrase living wage has reoccurred in United States of America. In the period of early 90s, focus was given more on jobs with low wage. Protesters in Baltimore, Maryland suppress their government to look for a policy tool so that their problems can have proper solution. The city then passed an ordinance known as living wage ordinance according to which any firm which hires workers must pay their employees or workers a good living wage. The idea was spread quickly in every part of the country. Today, after approximately seventeen years later, in 140 cities, multiple countries a nd countless universities this living wage ordinance is implemented. ... After some calculations, it is anticipated that more or less one-fifth of the entire population of the world are suffering from lack of adequate shelter, on the other hand, approximately a million or more people, mostly children, die every day due to lack of proper housing majority of which are targeted in developing world. There were many scholars who argue that it is quite complicated to make standardized criteria for sufficient housing in this entire world but there are some general norms which are: authorized security of residence, availability of infrastructure and services, accessibility, habitability, affordability, cultural and location adequacy. The rapid expansion and development in many cities go along with speedy increase in the total number of urban residents who reside in overcrowded and sub-standard conditions. The statistics of developing countries illustrate that town inhabitants represent approximately an average of twenty five to sixty percent of the population in urban areas. The current situation shows that the estimated percentage of urban population who lives in intense poverty is more than fifty percent; however, this may rise to almost seventy nine percent in most of the cities. More than one billion of urban dwellers are included in urban poor, whereas low income groups consist of approximately half of the existing urban population (Moser & Satterthwaite, 1985). Over the past three eras, there were many programs of official housing started in developing countries were unsuccessful in order to reach significant segments of the group, particularly households which are below twenty to thirty percent of the entire population. The

Accelerating Sales Force Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Accelerating Sales Force - Essay Example Unprofessionally hired, oversized, undersized or uneducated sales forces will cast augmented detrimental effects on any business because the presentation of the product is decisive when it comes to the market penetration and selling. A customer will decide to choose or leave the product based on the analysis of the product within few minutes. This time should be exploited in an optimal way to ensure the sale of the product and this job is done by the sales force. Seemingly, sales force might be considered among the lowest ranks in the organization hierarchies but technically, it is the most important sector in any business or organizational that decides the overall course of proceedings for the business. In order to ensure the success and increase of sales of any business, the sales force must be sized ideally and within the alignment of the organizational norms and standards. The sales force is said to be oversized when the customers see a rush of sales persons around them doing nothing. This is giving the glimpse that the sales people are sitting idle and they have nothing to do in the workplace. The oversized sales force will cause depletion of the economic resources of the organization.... This relationship is depicted in the figure below. It also says that time spent by each sales person on the customer is directly proportional to the profit or sales. (Zoltners,2001) Carryover factor has also a very important role to play. For example a customer comes to buy a product which is of high quality and very expensive. The efforts of sale person at that time will be a deciding factor for the future. If next time the same customer will come and there will be an undersized sales force at the same workplace, not much slashes in the sales will occur because the imprinting effects has been made at the first impression time. Cost containment approach is not good to follow if the company wants to plan long term profitability index increasing plans. For example a profit maximization approach allocating a 14% sales force expense of total sales will be better for a business than downsizing of sales persons. Efficient sizing and increasing of sales force promises profitability to the b usiness. Similarly gradual downsizing and step wise hiring is also harmful to the company because if the company will hire the individuals for the sales force step by step, extra cost will be exhausted in their training session, allowances etc. Increasing and focusing on the sales departments have a key role to play in achieving colossal milestones in the companies. For example if a company wants to achieve a big sales goal for the current year then they should definitely and immediately increase the sales force size (Zoltners et al, 2001). The sales force structures play a paramount role in fulfilling the customer’s needs which in turn produce benefits and strong customer relationships. The

Are decisions made by universities directly affecting students Essay

Are decisions made by universities directly affecting students justiciable - Essay Example The key piece of legislation in NSW in respect to the Judicial Review of University academic decisions is the ADT, it is through this act it allows for unfair publicly decided decisions to be reviewed on the grounds of fairness and legitimacy. In fact this act is based on the commonwealth's, especially the English Legal System's, common law approach. It is not based on the merits of the case rather whether there has been a procedurally fair decision. Therefore if one wants to refer to case law it is best to refer to the binding precedents of case law from the Commonwealth. This will be discussed in the next section. There is one factor that this discussion needs to point out, which is under English Law Higher Education Institutions are legislated so that they are considered public institutions; however in Australia this is not the case so there is the problem of private v's public institutions which will be discussed in further in reference to national law. ... Ultimately, integrity in research requires leadership. If, in the wake of the Hall affair, our universities cannot ensure an enlightened and responsible ethos in their research enterprises they risk a loss of public confidence (Hall v UNSW [2003] NSWSC 669. These rules are a crux to limitations faced by private higher education institutions under Australian National Law, which will be discussed in the following section. Commonwealth System: Dicey's jurisprudential thought is central to the present system of constitutional and administrative law; it deals with the decision making process and the powers of parliament; the government; executive bodies; and the courts. The main theoretical concept that Dicey's theory hinges upon is that parliament is supreme; there is no authority within the British territories or extra-territorially that has more power than parliament. The courts cannot overturn statutes or parliamentary decisions as this would erode parliamentary sovereignty. However not all decisions made in the name of parliament may be legal, because the individual has not acted in accordance with the spirit of parliamentary decision of the statute enacted by parliament. Also executive decisions are delegated through the hierarchy to bureaucratic departments and agencies; as well as human error or bias resulting in unlawful decisions1. To counter this Dicey incorporated the concept of checks and balances into the legal and parliamentary system; whereby the judiciary can hear a case, concerning the decision of an executive body, which may be illegal or a breach of natural law; whereby judicial review is an essential demonstration of Dicey's rule of law which is creating a system

Leading and Managing in Organisations Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Leading and Managing in Organisations - Essay Example iate it with something negative that brings ineffectiveness of the working or living conditions or the situation that promote inefficiency within the organization. However, conflict is not always a bad thing, in particular when it appears within organizations. Some types of conflict instead encourage new visions and solutions and increases creativity within the working team (Sims, 2002). Mullins (2007) proposes alternative philosophies of conflict. One of such concepts is a unitarist perspective, which is more traditional and views harmony and cooperation as natural state of human interactions. That is why it views conflict as negative effect of different misunderstandings and unwillingness to follow the common rules. While in the organizations the unitarist perspective is followed, it assumes that all organizational member should be in the same side, should be united by the leader and pursue the same goals. Whether some fail to follow the rest, they create conflict situation. The mo st vivid example of unitarist concept is the creation of team, a group of people that would follow certain rules and be led by the other person for the sake of reaching the same target. The pluralist perspective does not see conflict as an evil for the effectiveness of organization. Instead, it sees conflict as natural concept, however pluralists stay for handling conflict and set up certain policies and rules how to manage conflict. The radical perspective is derived from the Marxist idea about the constant struggle between owners and those who should work for owners. In organizations, a conflict is viewed as struggle between capital and labor, where managers are seen as the agents of owners and should not have their interest other than owners. Conflicts arise if managers fail to recognize these facts. The interactionist perspective views conflict as neither bad nor good thing, however, it is the integral part of each organization. However, the absence of conflict bears no ideas an d

Importance of Homework Essay Example for Free

Importance of Homework Essay Homework, as I understand, is a practice and review of lessons learned as part of your studies, not an instrument that forces students to relearn an entire lesson,” comments Dr. George Roberts, a renowned psychiatrist and professor at Harvard Medical School. Dr. Roberts does not believe in assigning students enormous amounts of homework because he considers it unnecessary and a waste of time. However, not all school boards concur with Dr. Roberts, since they perceive homework as an essential part of education and learning. Most people will agree that homework is an essential part of education, but the question is, how much homework should be assigned on a daily basis? Everyone may have different opinions on how much homework should be assigned, but here is my stance on the situation. I believe that the homework load that teachers can assign should be limited so that students will not accumulate too much stress, get enough sleep, and have more free time to enjoy their hobbies and spend with their family and friends. First of all, extremely exorbitant amounts of homework have been causing stress in many teenagers. What comes to mind when you think about stress? Competitions, performances, or homework? Amazingly, homework is one of the top stress providers for students. 13 out of 100 teenage suicides are related to stress buildup at school, specifically from the large amounts of homework. Excess homework has even been proven to cause an increased maturing rate of hair, also known as the graying of hair. I’ve had my own experiences of stress caused by homework, and they weren’t too pleasant.

Concurrent Processes In Operating Systems

Concurrent Processes In Operating Systems The programming technique, to use interrupts to simulate the concurrent execution of several programs on Atlas computers was known as multiprogramming. It was pioneered by Tom Kilburn and David Howarth. Multiprogramming in early days was done using assembly level language. Slightest mistake in programs could make program unpredictable hence testing them was difficult also the assembly level language had no conceptual foundation. Operating systems designed using this multiprogramming techniques grew very huge and unpredictable their designers spoke about software crisis. This created an urgent research and development need for concurrent programming techniques. Computer scientists took the first step towards understanding the issues related to concurrent programming during mid 1960s, they discovered fundamental concepts, expressed them by programming notation, included them in programming languages and used these languages to write the model operating systems. These same concepts were then applied to any form of parallel computing. Introduction of Concurrent processes in operating systems Processes played a key role in shaping early operating systems. They were generally run in a strictly sequential order. Multiprogramming existed but the processes did not exactly run concurrently instead a time based mechanism was used in which a limited amount of time was given to each process. Even in those days the processors speed was fast enough to give and illusion that the multiple processes were running concurrently. They were called as timesharing or multiprogramming operating systems (November 1961, called CTSS Compatible Time-Sharing System also Multics the predecessors of UNIX developed by MIT) These type operating systems were very popular and were seen as a breakthrough during those times. The major drawback was complexity of the system design which made it difficult to make it more versatile and flexible so that a single all purpose OS could be built. Also the resource sharing done by these processes was primitive or inefficient and it only showed there was a lot of room for research and development. Work on these operating systems made way for concurrent processes. Most of the original concepts related to concurrency were developed during this period. These innovative ideas and concepts went on become the basic principles on which todays operating systems and concurrent applications are designed. (A major project undertaken by IBM in this direction was in 1964 the OS/360 for their new mainframes system 360) To build reliable concurrent processes understanding and developing basic concepts for concurrency was important let us talk about concurrency and some of its basic programming concepts. Concurrency In computer science, concurrency is a property of systems in which several computations are executing simultaneously, and potentially interacting with each other. [Wikipedia] Let us consider a real life example a housing project such as the building of a house will require some work to go on in parallel with other works. In principle, a project like building a house does not require any concurrent activity, but a desirable feature of such a project is that the whole task can be completed in shorter time by allowing various sub tasks to be carried out concurrently. There is no reason any painter cannot paint the house from outside (weather permitting!), while the plasterer is busy in the upstairs rooms and the joiner is fitting the kitchen units downstairs. There are however some constraints on concurrency which is possible. The brick layer will normally have to wait until the foundation of the house had been layered before he could begin the task of building the walls. The various tasks involved in such a project can usually be regarded as independent of one another, but the scheduling of the tasks is constrained by notions of a task A must be completed b efore task B can begin A second example is that of a railway network. A number of trains making journeys within a railway network, and by contrast with the previous example, when they start and they end is generally independent of most of the other journeys. Where the journeys interact though is at places where routes cross or use common sections of track for parts of journeys. We can in this example regard the movement of trains as programs in execution, and the sections of track as the resources which these programs may or may not have to share with other programs. Hence the two trains run concurrently in case their routes interact sharing the same resources without interrupting each other similar to concurrent processes in operating systems. So as discussed earlier we understand that processes are important to implement concurrency so let us discuss the process as a concept which will introduce us to the most important concept for concurrency i.e. threads! Fundamental concepts Process A process is a running program; OS keeps track of running programs in form of processes and their data. A process is made of multiple threads. Threads The need to write concurrent applications introduced threads. In other words, threads are processes that share a single address space. Each thread has its own program counter and stack. Threads are often called lightweight processes as N threads have 1 page table, 1 address space and 1 PID while N processes have N page tables, N address spaces and N PIDs. Therefore, a sequence of executing instructions is called a thread that runs independently of other threads and yet can share data with other threads directly. A thread is contained inside a process. There can exist multiple threads within a process that share resources like memory, while different processes do not share these resources. A simple thread example There are two classes defined in this example namely SimpleThread which is a subclass of the Thread class and TwoThreads class. class SimpleThread extends Thread { public SimpleThread(String str) { super(str); } public void run() { for (int i = 0; i { System.out.println(i + + getName()); Try { sleep((int)(Math.random() * 1000)); } catch (InterruptedException e) {} } System.out.println(DONE! + getName()); } } The method SimpleThread() is a constructor which sets the Threads name used later in the program. The action takes place in the run() method which contains a for loop that iterates ten times that displays the iteration number and the name of the Thread, then sleeps for a random interval of up to a second. The TwoThreads class provides a main() method that creates two SimpleThread threads named London and NewYork. class TwoThreads { public static void main (String[] args) { new SimpleThread(London).start(); new SimpleThread(NewYork).start(); } } The main() method also starts each thread immediately following its construction by calling the start() method. Following concepts are mostly used at the thread level and also the issues discussed are encountered while implementing concurrency. Race condition A race condition occurs when multiple processes access and manipulate the same data concurrently, and the outcome of the execution depends on the particular order in which the access takes place.[http://www.topbits.com/race-condition.html] It is not so easy to detect race condition during program execution if it is observed that the value of shared variables is unpredictable, it may be caused because of race condition. In concurrent programming there are more than one legal possible thread executions hence order of thread execution cannot be predicted. Race condition may produce uncertain results. Outcome of race condition may occur after a long time. In order to prevent unpredictable results because of race condition, following methods are used- Mutual exclusion Mutual exclusion (often abbreviated to mutex) algorithms are used in concurrent programming to avoid the simultaneous use of a common resource, such as a global variable, by pieces of computer code called critical sections. (Wikipedia) -Critical Region (CR) A part of code that is always executed under mutual exclusion is called a critical region. Due to this, the compiler instead of the programmer is supposed to check that the resource is neither being used nor referred to outside its critical regions. While programming, critical section resides when semaphores are used. CRs are needed only if the data is writeable. It consists of two parts: Variables: These must be accessed under mutual exclusion. New language statement: It identifies a critical section that has access to variables. There are two processes namely A and B that contain critical regions i.e. the code where shared data is readable and writable. -Semaphores Semaphores are mechanisms which protect critical sections and can be used to implement condition synchronization. Semaphore encapsulates the shared variable and using semaphore, only allowed set of operations can be carried out. It can suspend or wake processes. The two operations performed using semaphores are wait and signal, also known as P and V respectively. When a process performs P operation it notifies semaphore that it wants to use the shared resource, if the semaphore is free the process gains access to the shared variable and semaphore is decremented by one else the process is delayed. If V operation is performed, then the process notifies the semaphore that it has finished using shared variable and semaphore value is incremented by one. By using semaphores, we attempt to avoid other multi-programming problem of Starvation. There are two kinds of Semaphores: Binary semaphores: Control access to a single resource, taking the value of 0 (resource is in use) or 1 (resource is available). Counting semaphores: Control access to multiple resources, thus assuming a range of nonnegative values. -Locks The most common way to implement mutex is using locks. A lock can be either locked or unlocked. The concept is analogues to locks we use in our doors; a person enters the room, locks the door and starts working and leaves the room after finishing the job, if another person wants to enter the room when one person is already inside, he has to wait until the door gets unlocked. Subtasks in a parallel program are often called threads. Smaller, lightweight versions of threads are known as fibres, which are used by some parallel computer architecture and bigger versions are called as processes. Many times threads need to change the value of shared variable, instruction interleaving between programs could be in any order For example, consider the following program: Thread A Thread B 1A -Read variable X 1B Read variable X 2A Increment value of X by 1 2B Increment value of X by 1 3A Write back to variable X 3B Write back to variable X As we can see in the example both the threads are carrying out same steps which are to read the shared variable, increment its value and write back its value to the same variable. It is clear how vital it is to execute these instructions in correct order, for instance if instruction 1A is executed between 1B and 3B it will generate an incorrect output. If locks are used by one thread, another thread cannot read, write the shared variable. Following example explains usage of locks: Thread A Thread B 1A Lock variable X 1B Lock variable X 2A Read variable X 2B Read variable X 3A Increment value of X by 1 3B Increment value of X by 1 4A Write back to variable X 4B Write back to variable X 5A Unlock variable X 5B Unlock variable X Whichever thread locks the variable first, uses that variable exclusively, any other thread will not be able to gain access to shared variable until it is unlocked again. Locks are useful for correct execution but on the other hand they slow down the program. -Monitors A monitor is a mutual exclusion enforcing synchronization construct. Monitors provide more structure than conditional critical regions and can be implemented as efficiently as semaphores. Monitors are supported by a programming language rather than by the operating system. They were introduced in Concurrent Pascal and are used as the synchronization mechanism in the Java language. A monitor consists of code and data. All of the data and some of the code can be private to the monitor, accessible only to the code that is part of the monitor. Monitor has a single lock that must be acquired by the task to execute monitor code i.e. mutual exclusion is provided by making sure that execution of procedures in the same monitor are not overlapped. Active task is the term used for the task which owns the monitor lock. There cannot be more than one active task in the monitor. The monitors lock can be acquired by a task through one of several monitor queues. It gives up the lock either by blocking a condition variable or by returning from a monitor method. A condition variable is a queue or event queue that is part of the monitor. Two monitor methods called as wait and notify can only be accessed by a condition variable queue. The behaviour of a monitor is known by the relative priorities and scheduling of various types of queues. The monitor locks are acquired by the processes in the monitor queues. The queues may be combined in some implementations. The tasks compete for the lock when the monitor lock becomes free. Condition Variable: In order to make sure that processes do not enter a busy waiting state, they should notify some events to each other; this facility is provided by Monitors with the help of condition variables. If a monitor function wants to proceed by making a condition true then it has to wait for the corresponding condition variable. When a process waits, it gives up the lock and is taken out from set of runnable processes. When a process makes condition true then it notifies a waiting process using condition variable. The methods mentioned above are used to prevent race condition but they might result into serious problems like deadlock and starvation let us have a look at these problems one at a time as we go further. Deadlock Deadlock refers to a specific condition where two or more processes are each waiting for each other to release a resource, or more than two processes are waiting for resources in a circular chain. Conditions for deadlock to occur 1] Mutual exclusion: Mutual exclusion means only one process can use a resource at a time. 2] Hold and wait: A process may hold a allocated resource while awaiting assignment of other resource. 3] No pre-emption: A resource can be released voluntarily by the process holding it. One process cannot use resource forcefully held by another process. A process that receives such resources cannot be interrupted until it is finished using the resource. 4] Circular wait: A closed chain of processes exists, such that each process holds a resource required by another process in the chain. Deadlock occurs only when circular wait condition is not resolvable and circular wait is not resolvable if first three conditions hold hence all four conditions taken together constitute necessary and sufficient condition for deadlock. In the diagram above we can see that process P1 holds resource R1 and requests for resource R2 held by process P2 , and process P2 is requesting for resource R1. Methods to handle Deadlock 1. Deadlock prevention Deadlock prevention is to ensure that one of the four necessary conditions for deadlock can never hold in following ways: I1. Mutual exclusion: allocate one resource to only one process at a time. 2. Hold and wait: It requires a process to request and be allocated its resources before it begins its execution, or allow process to request a resource only when process has none. This may lead to low resource utilization. It also may give rise to starvation problem, a process may be held for a long time waiting for all its required resources. The application need to be aware of all the resources it requires, if it needs additional resources it releases all the resources held and then requests for all those it needs. 3. No pre-emption: If a process is holding some resources and requests for another resource held by some other process that cannot be allocated to it, then it releases all the resources currently held. The state of pre-empted resource has to be saved and later restored. 4. Circular wait: To make this condition fail, we can impose a total ordering on all resources types. It is also required that each process requests resources in strict increasing order. Resources from the same resource type have to be requested together. 2. Deadlock avoidance In deadlock avoidance, the system checks if granting a request is safe or not . The system needs additional prior information regarding overall potential use of each resource for each process i.e. maximum requirement of each resource has to be stated in advance by each process. 3. Deadlock detection: It is important to know if there exists a deadlock situation in the system hence an algorithm is needed to periodically check existence deadlock. Recovery from deadlock To recover from deadlock, the process can be terminated or we can pre-empt the resource. In terminating processes method we can terminate all the processes at once or terminate one process and then again check for deadlock. Similarly there are mechanisms like fair scheduling that can be used to avoid starvation of resources. -Fair scheduling Fair scheduling is to allow multiple processes to fairly share the resources. The main idea is to ensure each thread gets equal CPU time and to minimize resource starvation. -First in first out (FIFO) FIFO or First Come, First Served (FCFS) is the simplest scheduling algorithm that queues processes in the order they arrive in the ready queue. Scheduling overhead is minimal because context switches occur only when process terminates and re-organization of the process queue is not required. In this scheme, completion of every process is possible, hence no starvation. -Shortest remaining time With this scheduling scheme, processes with least processing time are arranged as the next process in the queue. To achieve this, prior knowledge of completion time is required. Consider a scenario where a shorter process arrives when another process is running, in this case the current process is stopped and is divided into two parts. This results in additional context switching overhead. -Fixed priority pre-emptive scheduling The operating system gives a fixed priority rank to every process, and the processes are arranged in the ready queue based on their priority this results in higher priority processes interrupting lower priority processes. Waiting and response times are inversely proportional to priority of the process. If there are more high priority processes than low priority processes, it may result into starvation of the latter processes. -Round-robin scheduling In this scheduling algorithm, each process is allotted a fixed time unit. There could be extra overhead if time unit per process allotted is very small. Round robin has better average response time than rest of the scheduling algorithms. There cannot be starvation since processes are queued based on any priority. Also there are some desired Properties of Concurrent Programs; these properties will ensure a reliable concurrent program. There are some characteristics that a concurrent program must possess. They can be either a safety or a liveness property. Safety properties assert that nothing bad will ever happen during a program execution. Examples of safety property are: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Mutual exclusion à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ No deadlock à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Partial correctness A safety property is a condition that is true at all points in the execution of a program. Liveness properties assert that something good will eventually happen during a program execution. Examples include: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Fairness (weak) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Reliable communication à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Total correctness Communicating sequential process Communicating sequential process was introduced in a paper written by C. A. R. Hoare in 1978. In this paper he described how various sequential processes could run in parallel irrespective of the processor (i.e. it can be a single core or multi-core processor). CSP is an integration of two terms, Communication and Sequential process. A communication is an event that is described by a pair C, V, where C is the name of the channel on which communication takes place and V is the value of the message which passes through this channel by C .A. R. Hoare. In a Sequential Process new process cannot be started until the preceding process has completed. As CSP was more of a programming language so most of the syntax and notations were inherited from ALGOL 60 programming language. Most of the notations were single character instead of English words. For example,? and ! represents input and output respectively. CSP inherits the concept of Co routines over old programming structures such as subroutines. The structure of Co routines is comprised of COPY (copies character from output of one process to the input of second process), SQUASH is used to replace specified character with other characters, DISASSEMBLE, ASSEMBLE and REFORMAT. -OCCAM One of the renowned implementation of CSP is occam. It is named after William of Ockam. It is a strict procedural language. It was developed at INMOS. Occam2 programming language is used in most of the software developing companies across the world. It is an extension of occam1 which lacks multi-dimension arrays, functions and other data type support. Occam2 came into existence in 1987s. The latest version is occam2.1 which was developed in 1994. BYTESIN operator, fixed-length array returned from procedures, named data types etc. were some of the new features of occame2.1. the compiler designed for occam2.1 named KRoC (Kent Retargetable occam Compiler) is used to create machine code from different microprocessors. Occam-pi is the name of the new occam variant which is influenced by pi-calculus. It is implemented by newer versions of KRoC. JCSP Java programming language also implements the concept of CSP by JCSP. JCSP is a complete programming implementation of CSP i.e. it does not contain deep mathematical algebra. JCSP is used to avoid race condition, deadlock, live lock and starvation programmatically via java programs. The main advantage of JCSP is that most of the algebraic part is already developed and stored in libraries so the programmer does not require strong mathematical skills. To invoke a method he needs to import these inbuilt libraries. Concurrency Test Tools Design a concurrent application is very challenging task. Maintaining interaction between concurrently executing threads is very difficult task for programmer. It is very difficult to understand the nature of threads from one run of a program as they are nondeterministic. As result, it becomes very difficult for testing and debugging. So it is good idea to invest in techniques which can avoid this conditions aid in the process of development. We are exploring these ideas with tools for concurrency. CHESS This is one of the important tools, created by Microsoft Research, which is used to test multithreaded code systematically. CHESS facilitates both model checking and dynamic analysis. It has the potential to detect race conditions, livelocks, hangs, deadlocks and data corruption issues. Concurrency errors are detected by investigating thread schedules and interleaving and for this it chooses a specialized scheduler on which it repeatedly runs regular unit test. The specialized scheduler creates specific thread interleaving. CHESS controls state space explosion using iterative context bounding which puts a limitation on number of thread switching. This supports scientifically experimented concept that most of the concurrency bugs can be revealed with less number of thread switches. This concept is far better than traditional model checking. CHESS uses Goldilocks lockset algorithm to detect deadlock and race condition. For reporting a livelock, it is anticipated that programmes terminate and exhibit fairness for all threads. THE INTEL THREAD CHECKER Similar to CHESS, INTEL THREAD CHECKER is used for detecting problems in concurrency like data races and deadlock and it also finds out erroneous synchronization. The thread checker makes use of source code or the compiled binary for making memory references and to monitor WIN32 synchronization primitive. At the time of execution, information given by the compiled binary is used for constructing partial order of execution; this step is followed by happens before analysis of the partial order obtained. For improving efficiency and performance, it is better to remember latest access to shared variable than to remember all accesses. The disadvantage of this tool is it cannot find all bugs while analysing long-running applications. RACERX Unlike first two dynamic analysis tools we have discussed above, RACERX is a static analysis tool. It is not required to comment the entire source code rather user gives table which contains specification of APIs which are useful in gaining and releasing locks. Using such small sized tables proves to be advantageous because they lessen the overhead of annotating entire source code. The working of RACERX is carried out in several phases. In the first phase, RACERX builds a Control Flow Graph once it has iterated through each source code file. CFG consists of information about function calls, use of pointers, shared memory and other data. When building CFG is done, calls to these APIs are marked. This first phase is followed by analysis phase which involves checking race condition and deadlock. The last phase is post processing errors reported, the purpose is to prioritize errors by their significance and harmfulness. CHORD This tool is used for Java language, it is context sensitive static analysis tool. Its flow insensitive nature makes it more scalable than other static tools with the disadvantage of low accuracy. It also deals with the distinguishing synchronization primitives available in Java. ZING ZING, a pure model checker tool, verifies the design of multi threaded programs. It has the ability to model concurrent state machines using its own language that describes complex states and transition. It assures the design quality by verifying assumptions and confirming the presence or absence of some conditions. KISS Microsoft Research developed another model checker tool, named KISS (Keep It Simple and Sequential) for concurrent C programs. It converts a concurrent C program into a sequential program that features the operation of interleaving and controls non-determinism. Thereafter, the analysis is performed by a sequential model checker. While using this tool, the programmer is expected to justify the validation of concurrency assumptions. Introduction of multi-core processors increased the importance on concurrency by many folds. Concurrency and multicore processor Multi core processors The computer industry is undergoing a paradigm shift. Chip manufacturers are shifting development resources away from single-processor chips to a new generation of multi-processor chips known as multicores. Multiple processors are manufactured by placing them on the same die. Hence they share the same circuit. A die is a small block of semiconducting material, on which a given functional circuit is fabricated. A) Single Core B) Multi Core Why were they introduced? As we grow further in terms of processing power the hardware industry faces three main challenges Power Amount of power consumed by processors has been increasing as more and more powerful processors have been introduced to the market. The environment cost and the energy needs have compelled the manufacturer as well as organisations to reconsider their strategies to an extent where change in way the processors are manufactured or operate was inevitable. Processors can be overclocked or underclocked. Overclocking a processor increases the number of instructions it can execute but at the same time increases the power consumption; also overclocking a processor does not guarantee a performance improvement as there are many other factors to consider. Increasing the number of processors per core (quad or eight) will further improve the power to performance ratio. Memory clock Memory clock has not improved like the CPU clock hence adding a limitation on the processor performance. Often the instruction to be fetched must be retrieved from relatively slow memory, causing the CPU to stall while waiting for the instruction to be returned. So instead of building faster CPUs underclock it and have more number of cores with their own dedicated memories to have more instructions executed in the same given time. Also the clock speed in itself wont grow infinitely due to fundamental physics it has hit a wall. Chips melt above 5GHz of clock speed. Many possibilities are opened by placing two or more powerful computing cores on a single processor. True concurrent applications can be developed only on multicore processors. On single core processors concurrent applications can overload the processor degrading the performance of the application. On multi-core systems, since each core has its own cache, the operating system has sufficient resources to handle most compute intensive tasks in parallel. What are the effects of the hardware shift on concurrent programming? The free lunch of performance in terms of ever faster processors is over- Microsoft C++ guru Herb Sutter. For past five decades the ever increasing clock speed has carried the software industry through its progress but now the time has come for the software engineers to face the challenge staring directly at them which they have managed to ignore so far. Also as more and more cores are added to hardware the gap between the hardware potential and the s

gattom Great Gatsby Essays: The Character of Tom Buchanan :: Great Gatsby Essays

The Character of Tom Buchanan in The Great Gatsby Out of the five main characters in the Great Gatsby, I disliked Tom Buchanan the most ( however his wife Daisy was a close second). He just didn't seem like he was a nice person, and he also seemed extremely self-absorbed. I don't believe that he and I would choose the same values that we would consider important in guiding our lives. One of Tom's important values is wealth. He was very rich and thought that it made him superior to other people. He enjoys showing off his possessions, " I've got a nice place here. It belonged to the Demaine oil man" (Great Gatsby, 12). In this case, Tom is showing Nick his house and obviously thinks that because it belonged to the Demaine oil man that it makes it a little more important. Tom thinks that poor people are inferior to him and he is quite the snob. He is from old money and often refers to the newly rich as " bootleggers", people who distributed alcohol during prohibition. Tom doesn't think much of Gatsby , and claims that he pegged him as a bootlegger the moment he saw him. When Daisy tells Tom that she is leaving him for Gatsby he says, " She's not leaving me! Certainly not for a common swindler who'd have to steal the ring to put on her finger!" ( 140). Later, Tom even sends Daisy home with Gatsby, adding that his presumptous flirtation was over. Power and control over people is something that Tom considers important in guiding his life. Throughout the novel he has shown, time and time again that he is the type of person who likes to control others and what they do. Sometimes he is nothing more than a bully and other times he is just cruel.He often talks to George Wilson, his mistress' husband about selling him his car, which he never actually intends to do. He is simply toying with the man, but becomes angry when Wilson tries to talk to him about it: " Very well then , I won't sell you the car at all... I'm under no obligations to you at all...And as for your bothering me about it at lunch time I won't stand for that at all!" (122). Tom was being extemely cruel at that moment because Wilson needed the money that would come from the car and Tom didn't care.

Animal Farm, by George Orwell :: Animal Farm Essays

â€Å"All animals are equal, but some are more equal than others.† This simple quote from Animal Farm, which at first seems merely humorous, can provide valuable insight into the values and ideas expressed in the novel. George Orwell uses various language forms and features to convey the ideas that are evident in Animal Farm. Such features include allegory, fable, satire, imagery and characterization. They are used to provide understanding of the purpose of the composition and in doing so convey ideas such as greed, propaganda, utopia, work ethic, betrayal and warnings.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The form of allegory in Animal Farm is used to convey the composer’s ideas. Animal Farm is a composition which includes a deeper level of meaning beneath the superficial children’s story. One particular perception of the audience is that it is a subtle warning that power can corrupt any government. This can be seen through the character Napoleon and several of his porcine counterparts. As the novel develops, the pigs gradually obtain more power, which they use to take advantage of the less intelligent animals on the farm. This supports the idea that Orwell is possibly warning the audience that no matter what the original intentions are, power can corrupt anyone. Orwell uses a deeper level of meaning to act as a vehicle to convey his idea in the form of a warning.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Animal Farm is a fable which is used to teach a lesson in morality. One such lesson can be that greed reveals the worst in everyone. In the novel, the pigs were driven by their own personal interests and ambition until they became just as bad as their enemies (and even friends with them). The earliest example of greed is when the pigs steal the apples and milk for themselves under the false pretence of it being for the benefit of the farm. Later on, they become even bolder when Napoleon declares that what was to become the retirement paddock was to be sown with barley. This evidence is directly linked to the idea that greed produces the worst in everyone. Therefore Orwell’s ideas on greed are conveyed through the form of a fable.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Satire is also used in Animal Farm to help achieve the writer’s purpose. Animal Farm is a satirical view of Russian politics in the early to mid twentieth-century. This can be deduced from several key factors. The composer parallels the characters in Animal Farm to key Russian leaders by mimicking their personalities to their human equivalents.

The Womb: The New Scientific Frontier? :: Pregnancy Fetus Papers

The Womb: The New Scientific Frontier? In 1967 James Conniff, a reporter for the New York Times Magazine, wrote that the womb was the new frontier of science (Maynard-Moody, 1995). His article, and a smattering of other voices uncomfortable with fetal research, were a foreshadow of the great political and social controversy over the use of fetuses in scientific research. Prior to the Supreme Court's ruling in Roe vs. Wade in 1973, fetal research went on relatively peacefully without any protests from the public. After abortion was made legal by the Court's decision, the country was split between pro- and antiabortionists. While not their primary target, fetal research became another issue used by the antiabortionists to further their political interests. "Fetal research became a small skirmish in the larger battle over abortion" (Maynard-Moody, 1995). Representatives in government were sometimes elected based solely on their abortion position. The immense political pressure brought on by the antiabortionists caused otherw ise pro-research politicians to vote for bans on fetal research. A ban on federally-funded fetal research was put in place by the Reagan Administration and continued through Bush's years in office. A day after Clinton was inaugurated, he lifted this ban. The political and social controversy surrounding the use of fetuses has not died down or been resolved, however. No one doubts the value that fetal cells might have in the treatment or cure of many diseases, but the arguments on both sides of this issue deal with ethical considerations. The basic factor that informs both sides is how they define the rights of the fetus. On one side is the view that if the fetus is nonviable or is going to be aborted anyway, it is just tissue that should not go to waste. The other side of this issue are those that consider it immoral to use tissue from abortions. One proponent of this view is John Cardinal Krol who said, "If there is a more unspeakable crime than abortion itself, it is using the victims of abortion as living human guinea pigs" (Maynard-Moody, 1995). Steven Maynard-Moody, in his book The Dilemma of the Fetus, discusses the underlying tension that makes this and other medical advances such as gene therapy or human cloning so controversial in our society. He says that the underlying tension is "the friction between our addiction to progress and our fear that science erodes human values" (Maynard-Moody, 1995). He gives the example of the tragedy of the medieval Dr.

RE: Corporate Vision/Mission

According to the recent news reports, it has been seen that Turkey has facing some of the serious corruption scandals and other allegations against governments. These scandals creates riots and protests In every cities of turkey ,moreover many high class people and political leaders were accused with money laundering, gold smuggling and bribery. The current situation's impact was reached Turkey's international relation with other countries and put their aids at stake.Another challenge turkey was facing is Labor market. Turkey has a large population and In that about 68. 1% are working age, but In that economically active are 51. 3% in 2013 reports says. This is mainly due to several factors which includes low participation of female with only 32. 9 percentage of the working age women. Second factor Is, Turkey's grey economy is very large and the Council of Europe has been expected about 33 percentage of GAP In 2011 and many of the Jobs are formal sector in outside.The unemployment of youth is also a major challenge in turkey's progress, although it is not unique to Turkey and about 17. 3 percentage nouns people were unemployed as per 2013 report. It is considered that turkey Is one of the world's 10 largest economy In 2023 but now the lack of potential and political issues creates regression to its wealth. Turkey is one of the most important countries in the Middle East which is equal to Egypt and at the same time it has a very powerful military and a fastest growing economy.Turkey's services has been serves as a bridge between the East and West. The U. S. And European powers need Turkeys support In order to Implement Middle Eastern politics and to malting the Syrian conflict. Generally turkey's connection with outside world was very important in every terms like trade, economic and military. This relation not only helpful to turkey but to other countries. Turkey has biggest trading partner in E ( The European union ) and Its trading accounts are more than 50 p ercentage of Turkish exports.For northern Iraq turkey is the largest investor, and these investments and development from them have helped to stabilize this part of Iraq. Turkey is also a major investor in Central Asia and its construction companies can be found at work in many parts of the world. Turkey Is also an Important link between Islam and the West and will likely formed for about many decades and if so to come. Turkey is both east and west and can communicate clearly and effectively in both directions, and also from North to South.Turkey has been a very cooperative country to the Americans to fight against the terrorist activities In our globalization. After the sass's, Turkey anta terrorist activities were bayed very helpful in global reformation to the world and this makes turkey as major targets for terrorists also. At the same time Turkey is also a power resource for the Americans from middle east. Power is a vital element for the progression of every country and for Am ericans this vital element Is turkey. In my perception It Is very important for Turkey to Join with ELI to protect the long- term interests of its nation and people.Mainly there are many reasons behind it and 1 OFF same time it was also a very member of North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) which plays an increasingly vital regional role in the broader Middle East. This relation not only increase the progress of turkey but to reduce the burdens of US and international problems. This will help the Turkey to become more powerful in the globe by the process of designing and creating its future in a industrialization and modern way. In the past Turkey has important position among other countries.In the upcoming year we can see that turkey with become a developing nation after 2016 by the aid of allies and their relations. Turkey literally serves as the bridge between East and West. About 50 percentages of Turkeys trade is with the EX. (European Union). In 1920, the great reformer, M ustang Kamala Taurus emerged from he chaos of World War I to establish modern Republic of Turkey in order to transform several political transitions and development initiatives leading to its position as a growing economic power.Taurus understand that an integrated nation was essential to building new state. Turkey's push to Join the EX. has limited the power of the military. In his regime new progressive actions were implemented to improve turkey, like Religious schools were abolished and Suffix religious orders were closed. By 1934 women were granted the vote in national elections and were able to stand for election and be seated in parliament.

Hospitality industry Essay

â€Å"Oxford Dictionary defines hospitality as â€Å"receiving and hosting customers, visitors and strangers with cordiality and good reputation.† Receptors hospitality services perceive this service sector accompanied by food and friendly service good drink and familiar atmosphere. On the other hand, those who provide these services sometimes have the impression that, despite their efforts, customers can sometimes be picky and ungrateful. Regardless of the position they occupy, it is clear that the scope of activities influence people life, growing up over time. International there is a constant development and continuous improvement of hospitality industries. To welcome those who travel the world, literally and figuratively extend our hospitality and it is taking up with their requirements. For many people, facade, appearance or location determines the first impression that remains and is the most important. The hospitality industry, more than any other, is facing strong to the people. What create that lasting impression customers is effective, efficiency and hospitality of the people who by attitude and their kindness, hospitality is people oriented. But starting from the original meaning of the concept of hospitality, the hospitality industry can be defined with respect broad a range of commercial accommodation activities and / or food service for people who are far from home does not matter if is for longer or shorter time. In other words, the hospitality industry are not only great hotels and restaurants, but also a wide range of commercial activities such as guest houses, snack bars and fast-food establishments. The essence of hospitality is to ensure food, entertainment and accommodation for those who are away from home. The foundation of this work were made in Europe in the Middle Ages, the monasteries functioned as a â€Å"guest houses† for pilgrims. Subsequently, the work was extended by establishing inns for travelers, located along the main thoroughfares. Development occurs inns and hotels related an strict development of travel and holidays. The evolution of transport technologies allowed mass range of consumer leisure or business, creating an urgent need of accommodation and catering for people in away from home. Is generally accepted that hospitality, as an attribute of good manners, represents an primary objective of tourism. Regarded as a true art, the art of hospitality is intended to structure the customer for the service unit in such way that consumer products and services feel really wanted is treated as a guest. In addition, more than practice it occasionally grown into a true profession. Hospitality as a profession can be defined therefore as â€Å"the process of providing psychological and physiological comfort and safety of the client, while the consumption of products required on the premises benefit. â€Å"In this context, this attribute can accept industrial-scale development? Seen in terms of scale and investment characteristics and the fact that this sector of economic life is one work intensive, dedicated to the hospitality industry is similar industries. In the specialty literature doubts persist in using this terminology, especially in relation to the scope of then  hospitality industry. Thus, a series of authors consider as part of this field only food and accommodation services, perhaps because those benefits are offered under the same premises works like industrial units, other authors, however, consider it appropriate a broader approach, including leisure services and even the marketing of products. (David P. Baron Business and its environment, fourth edition) In terms of ownership, tour operators are found in both the private and public sector Private Sector. Increasing the number of transactions and mergers within the industry came amid vertical or horizontal integration. Horizontal integration involves expanding within an industry sector, for example through the development of hotel chains or network by opening new routes. Companies grouped in this formula is in an integrated chain, controlled by a unique decision. They offer a homogeneous product sold under the same brand, using the techniques work together. Horizontal integration means not only achieve these general goals, but also contribute to better accommodate certain geographical dimensions of tourism. Purchase of tourism enterprises in the coastal and mountainous areas, for example, may allow the transfer of staff and a seasonal effective use throughout the year human and material resources. Vertical integration within an organization bringing together various industry sectors, for example, when a company buys hotel or tour operator travel agency opened retailers. Integration can occur from within by developing a new product or activities of the company’s internal resources or external acquisition or takeover by other companies. As with other industries, the expansion through integration of technical and financial benefit. Increase the size of a firm enables him to take full advantage of computerization, a very important element in terms of travel bookings or may mean developing scientific research that would provide a competitive edge. The public sector is required at different levels, to pursue the public interest and provide goods and services whose cost cannot be covered by the private sector. The public sector is involved in tourism, directly or indirectly, for different reasons: economic; social and cultural; the environment; Police; Tax. Types of ownership in the industry of hospitality are the followings: sole-trader, partnership, private or public companies (limited liabilities), franchise. Sole –trader- a form of business in which the owner has the unlimited liability , Partnership – can be two or more people who share skills and workload, Company – it has to be registered before to start the business, the owners are its shareholders who puts funds in the company by buying share . Franchise – the franchisor is selling the right to operate under its company license to the franchiser. The diversity of the Hospitality industry consist in its different types of products and services it is offering such as different food and beverage products (e.g diversity of cuisine, vegetarian meals, nutrient level of the dishes, halal meat, etc), different types of accommodation(e.g. hotels, guests houses, campus accommodation, villas, apartments, cottages), leisure services, conferences, meetings and banqueting’s. (Dr. Sam handout) 1.2/P2 Systemic analysis reveals multiple functions and businesses increasingly important that they have the organizational structure as the main organizational subsystem. If hospitality organizations known two dimensions of organizational structure: †¢ horizontal dimension, †¢ vertical dimension. The horizontal dimension reflects general division of labor in specific activities or components. Working in horizontal organizational structure can be grouped into: functional structures and autonomous units, drives hybrid matrix units. Structure functional groups similar positions to produce and sell a service. Functional structures typical small tourism enterprises are simple and operate in a simple and stable also. Structure of a small restaurant is shown in figure below Structure-based autonomous units grouped under a single manager, whose positions work occupiers unlike running, but focuses on: distinct service or  group of services; a customer or customer group, geographic area. Organizing such autonomous units is adopted by large enterprises, transnational, operating in an unstable environment and heterogeneous. Example: Hilton International. Structure incorporates hybrid autonomous units and functional departments centralized and located at headquarters. A hybrid organizational structure is typical for a large company that faces an uncertain external environment and heterogeneous. A strength of this type of structure is that it takes advantage of concentration and coordination of autonomous units and functional departments are centrally such as research department – development Matrix organizational Westfield area structure is achieved by using simultaneous mixing functional structure or structure-based autonomous units. A new feature of this type of structure is that some workers should report more people and not a single manager. Matrix organizational structure is designed to determine collaboration between product managers and functional managers. Function Management Product Managers Production Manager Director Marketing Manager CEO Hotel A 1 2 3 CEO Hotel B 4 5 6 CEO Hotel C 7 8 9 Matrix cells numbered in the diagram above represents workers or teams of workers from the three hotels. Of note is that the hotel manager had to work with three functional managers and each functional manager must cooperate with each of the three managers of hotels. Conditions requiring matrix organization are: 1. Strong pressure for dual focus on technology and product; 2. Pressure related to the amount of data and its processing capacity; 3. Pressure on the general resources of the enterprise. After their content, the relationships within an organization are: Relationships determines the effective exercise of authority. They are divided into: Hierarchical relationships ensure unity of action, giving the enterprise, from this point of view, the appearance of a pyramid. The relation established between functional and operational departments, hierarchically subordinated them. Staff relations are independent of the first two categories are established as a result of the delegation by senior management, usually on the top hierarchical organization of the task to solve their behalf problems affecting multiple compartments. Cooperation relations established between stations on the same hierarchical level, but belonging to different compartments. Control relationships arising between specialized departments control and other departments of the company. Spontaneous relations are a consequence of the existence of the informal organization structure. (Teare R. , Adams D., Messenger S. CASSELL Managing Projects in Hospitality Organizations 1992) 1.3/P3 The national trade association for hotel, restaurants and catering sector is represented by the British Hospitality Association (BHA). Almost every public hotel group or independent hotels, restaurants, pubs food services, motorway services and many hospitality associations are members of BHA, who promotes the interests of the hole hospitality sector to the EU commission, government, ministers MPs, MEPs, MSPs, and media. Exist 16 additional committee working with the sector and its specific issues such as Management of food and service Forum, Local Hospitality Association, National Committee of Restaurants Association, Club Panel, Committee of Area Operations  Motorway Services. It is offering support and development for more than 40,000 establishments and over 500,000 employee were trained in order to improve their skills and get qualifications in the hospitality sector. The hospitality sector in UK boost its profitability with a series of events like Olympic Games 2012 and will be delivering world class service to the Ryder Cup and Commonwealth Games in 2014 and the Rugby World Cup in 2015. (www.bha-online.org.uk) People 1st is delivering a World Host customer service training (e.g. the successful event 2010 Vancouver Winter Olympics). Modern and energetic offering a comprehensive training the program can be found on DVD and CD scenario. People 1st is offering training and development for a series of industry but regarding the hospitality sector its focus is on the success key of the business, quality front-line â€Å"customer service†. They offer support from the new entry peoples in the industry to the experience staff in order to increase their chances to promote to the top positions. People 1st created the successful lead GIF (growth and innovation funds) for the hospitality in UK who brings together the industry bodies, individuals or businesses in order to promote training, innovation and career in the industry and also economic growth. It advice the employers how to use the employees skills and gives them a high quality training program. It support also the government ministers, associations and multinational business. (www.people1st.co.uk) (https://www.google.co.uk/search?) HOSPA is a non-profit organization with the aim to help and support education, it support the careers development in management, finance, IT, marketing, accountancy and is keeping up to date with the industry new trends. Its monthly magazine focus on its members reflecting the new trends, offering topics to the professional resources. BIIAB is the owned BII organizations who offers qualifications to the license retail sector available across UK. â€Å"Members should be clear that we  represent them and their views in influencing Government policy and importantly other key stakeholders in the industry. It’s important that BII looks, to the next generation of members and establishes a credible route to market for young people who aspire to work in this great industry†. Tim sees the role of BII as raising the reputation of the industry as a valued career, said Tim Hulme ABII, Chief Executive. (http://biiab.bii.org/biiab-usefulinformation/whos-who-in-biiab) City and Guilds of London has been the main provider of qualifications for those woking in food preparation and cooking, food and beverage services, front of the house and accommodation services. On average its awards between 50,000 – 60,000 certificates a year in the sector. 2.1/P4 It is well documented that the hospitality industry is an important part of the UK economy. Is an estimate that over 500,000 people are employed in the industry. As the industry grows not only need more staff, are required a variety of skills for different occupations, who needs to expand and meet the customer expectations. E.g. the hotel managers are no longer seen as â€Å"good hosts† . they need to be good team leaders with strong technical and financial skills, capable to assume a wide variety of responsibilities from training to the development of customers and staff relations. They need to have as well a multi-cultural approach to business operations and the ability to cope with stressful situations. It is estimate that the number of young people will increase so training and development is crucial in order to support the acknowledgement process for unskilled and semiskilled people employed in the industry and also for volunteers, seasonal workers or part time workers. For the new entry in order to start a career in hospitality the minimum requirement are a good command of English, good communication skills, positive attitude, friendly approach, customer oriented and hard working. An increased attention need to be given to the methods of advertising, selection, recruiting, induction and training specially for the staff who comes from outside UK due to the establishment of European single market, and finding solutions to the problems of a decreasing supply of  young people coming in the industry and the effort directed towards reducing the high level of labor turnover experienced by the sector. If for new entry staff are not any specific academic requirements just the willing to work hard and a positive attitude, for public facing role employers prefer candidates who have previous experience even certifications and qualifications in a customer service environment and show good skills and the appreciation of service quality. The industry offer possibility to work in a full time or part time basis, fix program or shifts, employing many woman’s and young people and allow them to move throw the certain areas of the industry. (Managing Projects in Hospitality Organization, Treare Richard and Co., CASSELL) Core occupations The sector employs both a large number of core occupations (specific to the sector) and additional occupations (found in most sectors). The following provides employment numbers for the sector’s core occupations: †¢ Kitchen and catering assistants (402,200) †¢ Chefs and cooks (273,200) †¢ Waiting staff (235,200) †¢ Bar staff (196,100) †¢ Restaurant and catering managers (158,200) †¢ Housekeepers and related occupations (59,800) †¢ Hotel and accommodation managers (58,400) †¢ Travel agents (47,600) †¢ Publicans and managers of licensed premises (43,500) †¢ Leisure and theme park attendants (24,000) †¢ Conference and exhibition managers (22,400) †¢ Travel and tour guides (16,600) †¢ Hotel porters (12,100) †¢ Travel agency managers (8,500 (www.people1st.co.uk/research) 2.2/P5 City and Guilds London Institute offers qualifications for front of the house services, food and beverage operations, chef’s and food preparation, accommodation. The Business and Technician Council (BTEC) is another key organization which provides awards for all level of competence. The number of individual obtaining qualifications in areas of hotels, catering, travel, tourism and recreation is approximately 9,000/year. Hotel and Catering Training Company (HCTC) and the Hotel, Catering and Institutional Management Association (HCIMA) are others institutes who offer qualifications for the industry staff. Managers in the hospitality industry are educated and trained through a wide variety of routes. The awarding bodies involved at these level include BTEC, the Council of National Academic Awards (CNAA), the HCIMA and the university sector. Separate arrangements exist in Scotland in the form of the Scottish Vocational Education Council (SCOTVEC). Exist two significant reports published who concerned mainly on management education. The first analyzed the management education in USA, Germany, France, Japan and UK. The founded argued that management group in the overseas are more likely to have been educated to a higher level and are more likely to have benefited from formal and systematic policies for continuing education and development than in the UK. The report recommended that leading organizations should act as role models of good practice and that individuals should secure higher level of education. The second report provided a thorough appraisal of management in the UK. Its findings showed that although there was general willingness opportunities to consider new of approaches, Britain’s management development opportunities of their competitors. it was recognized that management education could greatly improve the effectiveness of managers on average a British manager received only few days formal training per year. NVQ (National Vocational Qualifications) have been designed to offer qualifications in the industry from entry levels to the top management positions, so everyone can become better and improve skills and knowledge by getting NVQ accredited. (Managing Projects in Hospitality Organization, Treare Richard and Co., CASSELL, p243) 3.1/P6 PESTEL analysis The political environment The political environment is important for tourism companies, because there are laws, rules and tactics. Therefore, it is important to establish the place of political power in tourism and how political power to influence the future and the effects of these tactics. It is also important to identify the level at which an organization operates in a political tour. For example, a Belgian tour operator will face a political environment of local government, national government and EU legislation. Additionally, you will have to face political environments in the countries whose destinations are included in bid. Economic Environment. Tourism service providers will find that international economic environment affect the demand for their services and financing costs of such services. Examples of this are given by hotel chains like Best Western (U.S.) and Intercontinental (Japan), carriers, and Eurotunnel (UK / France) and Korean Air (South Korea) and holders of tourist attractions like Disneyland (USA, France). Socio-cultural Facto influencing the socio-cultural tourism organizations are related to the size and population, social class, attitudes and values. Demographics deals with the study population and the population is important for tourism organizations for two reasons: First, the population is a key factor influencing demand for tourism organizations. Secondly, labor organizations supporting tourism is derived from the population. For example, a country with large population represents a potential market for tourism services and one in which economies of scale can be achieved. Technological environment- collecting technology, dissembling technology, shorting reprocessing and use technology is a technological environment  provides tourism organizations both opportunities and threats. Opportunities resulting from technological development can be found in cheaper supplies in improvement of goods and services or to better marketing. Legal environment – such as vast protocols, rules and regulations, standards, contractual issues, planning system, facilities permitting, product stewardship legislation, landfill restrictions (liquids, tires, pretreatments),. Environmental factors – peak oil (oil reserves), virgin resource and landfill availability, exploitation impact (damages to the ecosystem), climate changes (future temperature, rise and impact), weather change, carbon balance recycle vs. virgin material. (Davin P. Baron, Business and its Environments, fourth edition p428) 3.2/P7 It has long been committed and only hotels under construction are increasingly using all kinds of green technologies. In addition, these environmental initiatives applies not only to expensive hotels in the world, but also in CIS countries. One of the most developed areas – reducing the cost of electricity, more hotels now use LED bulbs, which although more expensive, but consumes 3-4 times less electricity. Life in LED too. To consume less electricity utility to create a mini panel. In regions with good wind level, many hotels are increasingly equipped with turbines. Rarely used other alternative energy sources. More hotels in Astrakhan use generators on biodiesel. In the book â€Å"Gaia Napa Valley† heat lighting technologies used, increasing use of cars with alternative engines. So, increasingly, to go to a hotel used by electric vehicles and taxis and freight cars with hybrid engines. For example, California, Ambrose Hotel offers clients limousines on hybrid engine. Household chemicals – is an area that is too stupid to be updated. Being introduced more and more secure means of washing. A number of hotels in bathrooms are courteous customer requests to throw in a basket all the towels that need washing, so do not wash towels mountain again. As the scale of hospitality enormous amount of  harmful substances into the atmosphere when washing is absolutely clean linen and towels. Attention is paid to environment friendly building materials to use when building new hotels and repair old ones. â€Å"Green† directions are important, for example, it is wise to use water to regulate the heating-cooling processes inside, reducing plastic packaging. For example, already referred to American Hotel Gaia Napa Valley established the so-called â€Å"gray† water (runoff from showers and sinks), which is passed through a small filter is used to fill the pond and watering of vegetation great site. Environmental initiatives also bring revenue by improving the image of the hotel. Hotels online websites on the internet and on site to form a section of â€Å"environment – demanding† comments that describe achievement, environment and individual health care. The business are bound to become greener as a desire to reduce their costs, and in an effort to attract more visitors – because people are more aware of environmental issues. (http://ecology.md/md/section.php?) CRS (Corporate Social Responsibilities) The social responsibility perspective focus on role of business identified by concerns that extend beyond economic efficiency. Those role may steam from societal needs to otherwise adequately addressed or from the consequences or market imperfections. They may also stem from concerns that government is either unable or unwilling to address. E.g. some companies have voluntarily institute programs to reduce the carbon dioxide emissions in response to global climate change. From this perspective social responsibilities arise from the needs and the legitimate concern of individuals, and business must assets those needs and concerns to determine the extent of its responsibilities. Business leader advocate corporate social responsibilities for a variety of reasons. Some are argue that there are some objectives that can be achieved only through direct corporate actions. Business for example may be more efficient than the government or educational institutions at training workers for certain jobs. Other business leaders call restraint of the pursuit of profits and for self-regulation in the hope that will forestall additional government intervention and regulation. These calls are viewed by some as a necessary  response to pressures arising from the nonmarket environment. Some calls for corporate social responsibility are directed to the public with the intent of increasing public support for businesses. Some who call for corporate social responsibility believes that unless the business uses the rhetoric of social responsibility and more intervention by the government will result. That intervention could not only harm business interest but would also impair efficiency, competitiveness and the well – being of society. (Davin P. Baron, Business and its Environments, fourth edition p647) 4.1/P8 The Yield Management is a concept, an approach to maximize profit based on careful tracking of the evolution of prices and tariffs and set, taking into account actual sales and availability of the company. By applying Y.M. aims at determining the highest tariff to be charged within cost and available capacities and also ensure that all those customers wishing to benefit from a particular product or service and willing to pay the fee to be able to do. Basically, Y.M. provides: Maximizing the average profit for a product available based on customer expectations on price and setting its highest value that customers are willing to pay; Seasonality of demand reduction by transferring its excess of other peak times Y.M. is based on the analysis and interpretation of the demand curve, concept representing an expression of the relationship between price and demand. Customers are divided into different segments according to the wishes and their willingness to pay, yielding several price levels. As an expression of applying the Y.M. Tourist practice, Scott Hornick identified five functional components: market segmentation; Structuring pricing policy; Demand forecasts; Willingness and ability to lead; Negotiate appointments Market Segmentation entails identifying distinct groups of tourists with different behaviors that are important for travel company on the activity, the price or decisions. Pricing policy considering the possibility of offering a different price categories for each customer segment, according to market changes and requirements. Demand forecast is made taking into account previous sales, size and structure of customer segments and the prices that they are willing to accept. Willingness to lead, as well as negotiating appointments, refers to the attempt to quantify the characteristics of the application. Company must take into account any changes that occur, and the fact that some customers are willing to negotiate prices. (Marketing Hospitality, third edition, 2002, Cathy H.C. HSU, Tom Powers) Following the emergence of new tools are needed for globalization manage processes, multi-ethnicity and culture and support employees and businesses to meet all stakeholders. The planning and management of destinations and profile companies must take account a number of changes in society and the world economy. According to economic theory, globalization is seen as a process evolve gradually. The models can be used to illustrate the scope and involvement in international transactions. Anne-Mette Hjalager (2007, pp. 437-457) constructs a model descriptive four stages of globalization of the tourism industry in order to make understand the complexity of the dynamic interactions take place outside of borders. The level of analysis is the community interest and their stakeholders: tourism companies, communities, national and local etc. Consequently, globalization is seen as a result of both the singular decisions taken by the companies profiled and policy makers national and local. The first stage includes national tourism system tests to access new markets. The purpose of â€Å"missionaries† tour is to attract customers by firms, destinations or countries where tourism product will be sold or consumed. Force communication emerge beyond the promotional campaigns international markets for consumers, being a strong bond between tourism associations and other collaborating organizations. Communication is possible overcoming  barriers in many countries where some tourist organizations are reluctant to changes. The second stage describes the integration and incorporation of tourism businesses across national borders. Investments beyond their own country is a subject treated extensively in the literature of globalization. In tourism, reproduction and external expansion of successful business concepts recognized most consumers are a powerful force majeure globalization. Transfer of capital and concepts is pregnant in this industry, and the pros and cons of cultural and economic hegemony discussed in a largely predominant when the transfer is done by countries developing. Two methods are developed global integration more first business integration through investments, mergers and acquisitions, and then trade overall concepts through franchises and licenses. The third stage refers to the spatial fragmentation and relocation production processes. In recent years there was an increasing emphasis on creating profitability through extensive fragmentation and optimize the entire value chain. While a great deal of resources are local only national, international markets affecting the availability of increasingly more composition of the local tourism product and the production process. In this service with a high degree of absorption of work, the supply of human and is immaterial importance. Finally, in the fourth step, it is questionable identity industry and new types of markets and business concepts that will exceeds previous definitions of tourism. Many organizations and many researchers are involved in trying to define and explain logically tourism traditional economic statistical categories. Although the model suggests a logical progression to the final stage the more complex, in practice, they overlap. (http://store.ectap.ro/articole) 4.2/P9 Future trends in the Hospitality Industry Can be summarized as follows: More green and eco – lodgings, Development of meg – hotels (multipurpose facilities with casino, shops, theatre, theme park), More boutique hotels, Intelligent hotels with advance technology using the guest fingerprint in order to perform all the operations (charge, check – in and out), Increasing the employee salaries in order to retain the existing staff, The effect of information – technology shows more than ever that knowledge is power. Providing an outstanding service, people safety and security, the technology that enhance competitors, globalization, the people demand, development of tourism lodgings, report between quality and quantity and price and value all this are current and future trends which affect the hospitality industry. Lifestyle and Quality plays an essential role in attracting and retaining the customers reason why service quality force industry organizations to search for competitive advantages, rise above guests expectations, build relationships with each customer, review their policy. In order to achieve a better customer satisfaction and loyalty, attract and retain the guests. The researches in the sector shows that a high rate of customer satisfaction drives to a bigger financial outcome in the industry. (Dr. Sam handout) Conclusions Purpose of this study is to provide an overview of the hospitality industry its benefits, the scope and the extension that have had over the years, becoming an essential part of everyday life. Our world is in a constant motion, a world full of changes, opportunities and issues. In the hospitality industry customers are changing, the technology is changing, markets are changing reason why hospitality organizations are trying to become more customer– focused, to develop and improve their performance, encouraging innovation. The new trend and existing trends derives the sector to success by offering solutions, being a basic element of prosperity helping to increase the performance and preparing the industry to face challenges. The industry has a big impact on economic growth and is creating employment and offers support for people to develop their skills training them throw the hospitality professionals bodies, aimed and promoting them to the top positions. One big issue of the industry  regarding the employees is the salary. The organizations should take is count the long working hours, stress, the factors affecting the environment of working place, review their health and safety rules and protection in working place, motivating them by increasing the salaries and paid holidays, keep them happy in order to have happy customers and increase their revenue. The benefits of working in the sector include learning new skills, be trained by professionals, learn to be professional, be open to challenges, improve your behaviors and learn how to make money anywhere in the world. Is a quick growing sector offers flexibility and you can have fun while you are getting paid. References : Dr. SAM handout Marketing Hospitality, third edition, 2002, Cathy H.C. HSU, Tom Powers ISBN +-471-34885-6 Teare R. , Adams D., Messenger S. CASSELL Managing Projects in Hospitality Organizations 1992, ISBN 0-304-32505-8 David P. Baron, Business and its Environments, fourth edition p647, ISBN 0-13-047064-3 http://biiab.bii.org/biiab-usefulinformation/whos-who-in-biiab http://ecology.md/md/section.php http://store.ectap.ro/articole https://www.google.co.uk/search www.people1st.co.uk www.bha-online.org.uk helpful http://www.pointofsalesystems.com.au/page/hospitality.html